Author: Zeinab Abulhul, PhD
December 4, 2024
Introduction
Many countries are committed to ensuring a good quality of life for their children, viewing it as an investment in the future. They develop and implement social policies to promote children's well-being and prepare them for a prosperous future. This involves addressing global issues, improving education, and allocating budget plans to translate social policies into programs and social services.
These efforts are globally supported by international agreements, treaties, discussions, and conventions, such as those sponsored by the United Nations. However, despite the hard work of many countries to keep their commitment to those agreements, children are coerced into illegal activities, such as being conscripted as soldiers through financial enticement or threats of violence, as recently seen in Libya.
The ongoing civil war in Libya has had a devastating impact on children, leaving them without access to education and necessities. This has resulted in a lack of understanding about the importance of leading healthy, educated, and productive lives. As a result, they have become accustomed to a life of conflict and are struggling to see beyond it. This horrible situation subjects children to violence, abuse, and psychological trauma, shattering their childhood and robbing them of a future.
This paper aims to raise awareness about the exploitation of children in warfare and advocate for their rights, highlighting the urgent need to protect and support one of the most vulnerable populations.
Civil Wars and the Exploitation of Children
Colonel Muammar Gaddafi governed Libya from September 1969 until his death on October 20, 2011. His extended rule enabled him to exert firm control over the population, allowing no space for dissent (BBC News, February 16, 2011). The regime allocated resources to citizens based on their allegiance instead of their citizenship, leading to the marginalization of cities that expressed opposition. This strategy resulted in political and economic disparities, along with issues such as poverty, unemployment, and violence, despite Libya's wealth (France 24). Those opposed to the regime endured constant pressure and sought ways to flee their circumstances. Then, the Tunisia uprising occurred, inspiring the Libyan opposition to protest for their rights. The government responded to demonstrations with violence, detaining citizens rather than allowing them to express their grievances. The situation escalated as the government's security forces fired on 500- 600 protesters, resulting in over 300 deaths. In addition, the government arrested the representatives of relatives of victims of political prisoners, where 1,200 were killed in the Abu Salim prison massacre in 1996. Protest demonstrations spread to all major cities like Al Zawiya, Beyida, and Benghazi (BBC News, February 16, 2011: CJPME May 2011).
Many ordinary Libyans were unaware of the existence of child soldiers fighting in conflict areas in Libya. They believed that children were too young to be involved in the military, despite the Libyan regime converting high schools into military institutions in the 1980s. In 1984, the Libyan former president, Colonel Muammar Al Gaddafi, forced high schools to be converted into military barracks by law. The goal was to indoctrinate children in the ideology of defending their homeland. Students wore military uniforms and received basic training. They were given lessons on different types of weapons and how to handle and maintain them (Law No. (3) of 1984 AD regarding the Armed People). Libyans thought basic training was nothing more than training in personal protection.
However, international correspondent Ruth Sherlock reported that the military barracks allegedly recruited 90 individuals aged 15 to 19 and brought them to military bases in Tripoli for training. There, authorized forces stripped children of their belongings, took their cellphones, and isolated them from any news to prepare them to fight for their nation by brainwashing them that ISIS and foreign invaders were attacking their country. This was one of many such abductions. Many Libyan families reacted with widespread rejection and resentment upon learning about the news, especially when they saw the harsh reality on the ground. Some of their children died, while others suffered amputations, losing one or more of their limbs (The Child Labor Coalition, 2011).
According to a UNICEF New York report, children mentioned that they were not aware that they would be fighting the rebels attacking Gaddafi’s administration in Misrata. They were trained to use heavy weapons such as cannons and drive tanks. The children hoped to complete the mission and return to their families without casualties. They communicated this to the emergency doctors who tried to rescue them. Unfortunately, many of these children were killed without having the opportunity to bid farewell to their families. They were unaware of the impact of the battle on their childhood as well as on the lives of civilian populations (The Child Labor Coalition, 2011; Channel 4 News, 2011).
The use of children as soldiers by armed militias in the Libyan conflict is a significant cause for concern. The situation for children in Libya is alarming, with almost 75% facing the risk of experiencing violence, abuse, and exploitation (UNICEF Libya, 2023).
Children were made to serve in different roles, such as soldiers, cooks, porters, messengers, spies, mine detectors, forced laborers, and even human bombs. Children might be pressured into joining the armed forces through recruitment or abduction, but many of them end up joining voluntarily. Many children are pulled into militia groups because of challenging socioeconomic conditions or a mistaken belief that they are making a positive contribution to their communities (STJ PROJECTS, 2021).
Nearly 6,500 children have been influenced by Gaddafi-affiliated groups to join the conflict and consider themselves as "revolutionaries," feeling responsible for fighting for their country (UNICEF, USA, par 5, 2023). Some of Gaddafi’s opponents, particularly in Misrata, involved children as young as seven years old in preparing weapons to fight Gaddafi and his international mercenaries. Parents believed that children should understand the situation in Libya and learn how to defend their country against Gaddafi's forces responsibly. As a result, at the start of the revolution, many parents enlisted their children for basic tasks, such as cleaning and carrying dangerous weapons like automatic firearms, without fully considering the consequences of the situation (DAILY MAIL REPORTER, 2011).
Several factors may drive children to join the armed forces. These include severe social disparities, separation from caring adults, lack of access to education, displacement, and being enticed by the perceived power and status of soldiers. Additionally, seeking revenge for the death of a relative can motivate children to join the armed forces.
Most individuals under the age of eighteen who become involved with the armed forces or armed groups are usually in one of two situations:
They are abducted or forced to join through serious threats.
They join voluntarily, either independently or through recruitment programs.
Individuals who are abducted or forced to join specific groups under serious threats experience harrowing ordeals. This disturbing practice has severe consequences for the victims and raises important ethical and legal questions.
Traffickers and armed groups use children as soldiers.
In Libya, the current situation has created an environment conducive to human trafficking, with groups abducting children from outside the country to further their illegal agendas. The exploited children came from countries experiencing internal political and armed conflicts that recruit children to be fighters, such as Chad, Sudan, and Somalia (Human Rights Watch, 2007; UN, 2024; ICRC, n.d).
Some countries are involved in perpetuating the armed conflict. These countries include Yemen, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Russia, France, Turkey, and Qatar. Evidence shows that some of these countries are participating in illegal activities that violate international human rights law (Badi, 2022; Ellmer, 2021, Apr 15; TRTWORLD, 2014; INSIGHT, 2020). For instance, the UAE leverages its financial resources to offer economic aid to less fortunate countries in return for the training of young individuals to collaborate with Emirates forces. One specific example was the secret initiative by the Somalian government to recruit children in order to support Emirates mercenaries, as detailed by HALQABSINEWS's News Desk (2023).
Additionally, as reported by Al Jazeera on July 14, 2020, there have been instances of collaboration with human traffickers, such as the case of 122 Sudanese individuals, including eight children, who were misled and enticed with money to work as mercenaries in Libya to support Khalifa Haftar. Khalifa Haftar was a Field Marshal under Gaddafi and the commander of the Libyan National Army (LNA). He is now a member of the House of Representatives for the State of Libya. The Sudanese government intervened in this case and thwarted this attempt to lure their youths into war.
This is not the first time children have been used as mercenaries to fight in Libya. Chadian armed groups, in collaboration with human traffickers, have exploited impoverished Chadian Arab tribes, enticing children with money and food. These children were then sold to Chadian armed groups, who were hired by several conflicting militia groups in Libya. This practice occurred in 2011 under Muammar Gaddafi and then again by Khalifa Haftar and the Misrata Forces in 2015 (Bish, 2021).
Syrians for Truth and Justice (STJ) revealed that armed groups affiliated with Russia and Turkey have taken similar actions to the Chadian rebels with Syrian children. Additionally, Russia's private military company, the Wagner Group, has been working with Syrian factions to recruit and deploy children to Libya, where they are actively supporting the armed conflict leader Khalifa Haftar (Reuters, 2020; Bouzo, 2023). Russian armed groups collaborated with Syrian recruiters and intermediaries to recruit soldiers under the age of 18, offering contracts ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 USD to participate in the fighting in Libya (Syrian for Trust and Justice, STJ, 2021).
A report by Syrians for Truth and Justice (STJ) revealed that the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES), in collusion with the Revolutionary Youth (RY), oversaw the abduction and recruitment of 52 children to work as child soldiers in conflict areas in 2022 and 2023 (STJ PROJECTS, 2024, Jan 30; STJ PROJECTS, 2023, Jan 25).
UNICEF Executive Director Henrietta Fore recently highlighted the alarming issue of immigrant children being subjected to abuse and exploitation to participate in fights. (UN News, 2020, Jan 17). This distressing situation urgently requires attention and action to guarantee the safety and rescue of these vulnerable children.
Child Soldiers: The Grim Reality of Voluntary Recruitment and Coercion
Since the start of the Libyan civil war on February 15, 2011, many children have been recruited as soldiers (UN, OCHA, 2017). The political conflict and civil war in Libya have resulted in an elevated number of Libyan children requiring psychosocial support due to their exposure to abuse and violence. As per the United Nations, 2.4 million individuals in Libya require various forms of support and protection, 96,000 of this number being children, 28.13% of which are children from the cities of Tripoli and Benghazi alone. (UNICEF, 2015).
A report from UNICEF New York in 2019 estimated that more than 500,000 children were directly affected by violence during militia armed fighting. Approximately 1,800 children needed immediate evacuation from the conflict frontline to safe areas, and 7,300 were relocated away from their homes to be placed in safe zones. According to the report, 1,000 children were detained in poor conditions (UNICEF, Nov 15; UNICEF 2019, April 18).
Some families in Syria are willing to allow their children to join armed groups associated with Turkey and Russia to be sent to Libya in exchange for payment ranging from 7,000 to 9,000 Turkish Lira (TL) (SYNERGY HEVDESTI PRESS RELEASE, 2022). Syrians for Truth and Justice (STJ) reported that 600 children were recruited by Syrian opposition armed factions. The families of the children were either enticed with money to recruit their children or the children were abducted to join the Syrian mercenaries (STJ PROJECTS, 2023, Apr 21).
Factions of the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army have been recruiting children to fight in Libya under Turkey's supervision in support of the Libyan Government of National Accord (Zaman, 2020).
Armed recruiters exploited the impoverished conditions of children's families in Turkish shelters, enticing them with money and promises of a better life to join mercenaries for a monthly salary of 3,000 USD (France 24, 2021). As a result, 150 children were recruited into the army and accepted to be deployed to fight alongside adult mercenaries, resulting in the deaths of 16 of them (Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, 2020, May 13).
According to a UNICEF report dated March 17, 2022, in Tripoli, more than 26 school-age children were killed or injured due to explosive remnants of war over the past two years (UNICEF, 2022, Mar 27).
In 2022, the UN's ceasefire agreement to bring peace and negotiate the building of a new Libyan government was violated. It was signed in Geneva between armed conflict parties in Libya in 2020. The violation of the ceasefire agreement resulted in the deaths of five children among a total of 58 individuals, along with 201 others sustaining severe injuries, eight of whom were children. At that time, there were 2,791 internal immigrants and refugees living in various detention centers, with 178 of them being children. 2% of these children were unaccompanied by their parents or guardians. This situation creates an environment where children are vulnerable to exploitation and abuse, making them victims of violence and susceptible to being forced into becoming soldiers and participating in combat (UNICEF Libya, 2022; UN News, 2020, Oct 23; BBC, 2020). The unsettling situation in Libya has led to the country being added to the list of nations impacted by the Child Soldiers Prevention Act (CSPA).
The Impact of Civil War on Child Soldiers: Both Physical and Psychological
Children are frequently subjected to violent acts, which desensitizes them and may lead to them perpetrating violent acts themselves. Additionally, children in war zones may be subjected to sexual violence, which hinders their development, leads to physical injuries, and can constitute torture. These victims may struggle to access medical care or seek help, and they may experience psychological effects such as intense shame and self-blame. Furthermore, they are at an increased risk of contracting infections (Human Rights Watch, 2008).
Children who have been exploited as child soldiers in a war may find it challenging to overcome their trauma. Even after the war ends, they may continue to live in fear of their commanders, and some may resort to drugs and alcohol to cope with their fear of combat. As a result, these children can face long-term psychological and emotional challenges (Levy & Sidel, 2008).
Children affected by armed conflicts and forced displacement face a high risk of psychological distress as a result of being exposed to numerous ongoing traumatic events (Veronese et al., 2021). Studies show the psychological effects of war on children and adolescents are significant, with lasting effects. The impact of war on individuals can lead to various mental health challenges, including anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, dissociative disorders, behavioral issues, and substance abuse. According to Joshi and O'Donnell, these mental health problems are a natural response to the abnormal events experienced during war.
Returning to everyday life for child soldiers after a war is challenging. They can be susceptible to alcohol and drug misuse. A literature review by Singh & Singh (2010) summarized the findings of previous studies by various scholars in 2003, 2004, and 2006 on the effects of child soldiering on children's mental health. It revealed that child soldiers experienced recurrent memories of their traumatic experiences, sadness, flashbacks, preoccupations with the past, anxiety, and fear (Singh & Singh, 2010). These findings were supported by a study conducted by Pfeiffer et al. between 2007 and 2008, which focused on the impact of war experiences on children who were fighters. The study findings, as cited by Schauer & Elbert, noted that the mental well-being of former abductees continues to be significantly influenced while they adjust to their new surroundings. The authors emphasized the critical necessity of providing comprehensive mental health services as an essential component of demobilization and rehabilitation programs. Such support is vital for enhancing individual functioning and preventing violence (Schauer & Elbert, 2010).
The use of children as soldiers in war contradicts the natural laws of society. Children should be nurtured, raised in a healthy environment, and educated in schools on being builders, not destroyers, and good individuals for themselves, society, and the world. Children who are abducted from their families and unaware of what is happening are particularly vulnerable to severe trauma and emotional impacts. It is crucial to take decisive actions to protect and support children who experience trauma. This can be achieved by teaching children effective war trauma management techniques and providing personalized support approaches to restore and maintain their physical and emotional well-being (Bürgin et al., 2022).
Protective international laws and conventions for child soldiers
The recruitment of children into armed conflicts is a violation of the Geneva Convention on the Rights of the Child. Article 38(3) of the 1989 Convention forbids the recruitment of children under 15, and Article 22(2) of the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC) prohibits the recruitment of children under 18. The ACRWC was established in 1990 and went into effect in 1999. Additionally, the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, which was adopted on May 25, 2000, also addresses this issue (ICRC, n.d., Rule 136; Human Rights Watch, 2004; ICRC, IHL Databases, n.d).
Libyan law does not address the involvement of children in armed conflict. It is reported that the Libyan Gaddafi regime allowed recruitment from age 16, with individuals under 18 only permitted for training and not deployment in operations (UNHCR, 2001).
UNICEF has been actively working in Libya since the outbreak of armed conflict to support children and their families. The organization plans to establish programs that protect vulnerable people and provide them with essential services such as healthcare, nutrition, clean water, education, and child protection (UNICEF Libya, 2023-2025). In addition to offering Explosive Ordinance Risk Education (EORE) to 150,000 children, UNICEF conducted parenting workshops for 1,867 parents/caregivers, assisted 150 Unaccompanied and Separated Children (UASC), and enhanced the skills of 79 children in alternative detention (UNICEF Libya report, 2023). UNICEF provides alternatives to detention which include placement in a supportive community like a host family or sponsor.
Several organizations, including UNICEF, Save the Children, and War Child, strive to protect children affected by conflict. They provide healthcare and emotional support and advocate on behalf of child soldiers to help them recover and reintegrate (UNICEF, n.d.).
Several governments partnered with UNICEF Libya to guarantee the safety and protection of children and to enhance the legal framework for child protection. These governments allocated funds and organized initiatives to bolster children's protection in Libya. For instance, Germany supported UNICEF Libya by creating programs and activities focused on upholding children's legal rights within the protection system, which helps safeguard children from abuse and victimization (UNICEF, 2015, Apr 12). The Netherlands has contributed to programs that assist internal child migrants who have lost their parents during the conflict. These programs provide a safe transition through protection services (UNICEF, 2024, Feb 14). Additionally, Switzerland has contributed to programs that enhance children's education and social services, thereby strengthening children's protection and progress (UNICEF, 2013, July 23).
Libya needs to address the issue of child recruitment by implementing global child protection laws to prevent individuals under 18 from participating in armed conflict. These laws should be integrated into Libya's domestic legal system. Libyan officials should collaborate with the United Nations to develop strategies for reporting violations and taking action against those who recruit children for armed conflict. This collaboration must involve sharing social workers and other professionals who can support children's protection programs. Establishing training programs aligned with international initiatives to protect children from being recruited into armed conflict is important. This requires support from the United Nations to advocate for children's protection and to support families and children in speaking up about violations. Activities and workshops should be organized to raise awareness and educate people on policies that protect children.
Glossary
Anxiety: “Anxiety is an emotion characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts, and physical changes like increased blood pressure.”
Bolster: “To support or improve something or make it stronger.”
Child: “Refers to any person less than 18 years of age in accordance with the Convention on the Rights of the Child.”
Child soldiers: “A child soldier is a human under 18 years old, recruited by an army or simply participating in an armed conflict.”
Civil War: “A violent conflict between a state and one or more organized non-state actors in the state’s territory. Civil wars are thus distinguished from interstate conflicts (in which states fight other states), violent conflicts or riots not involving states (sometimes labeled intercommunal conflicts), and state repression against individuals who cannot be considered an organized or cohesive group, including genocides, and similar violence by non-state actors, such as terrorism or violent crime.”
Coerced: “To persuade someone forcefully to do something they are unwilling to do.”
Collusion: “Agreement between people to act together secretly or illegally to deceive or cheat someone.”
Conscripted: “To force someone to serve in an army or one of a country's armed forces.”
Demobilization: “The action of releasing someone from one of the armed forces, especially at the war's end.”
Depression: “A mental illness in which a person is very unhappy and anxious (= worried and nervous) for long periods and often feels no interest in anything.”
Detention: “The act or condition of being officially forced to stay in a place. “
Disorders: “An illness of the mind or body.”
Disparities: “A lack of equality or similarity, especially in a way that is not fair.”
Dissociative Disorders: “Any of several mental health conditions in which someone may. “
Exploitation: “The act of using someone or something unfairly for your own advantage.”
Human Trafficking: “The crime of buying and selling people, or making money from work they are forced to do, such as sex work.”
Ideology: “A theory or set of beliefs, esp. One on which a political system, party, or organization is based.”
Immigrant: “A person who has come into a foreign country in order to live there.”
Indoctrinate: “To instruct, especially in fundamentals of rudiments” and “to imbue with a usually partisan or sectarian opinion, point of view, or principle.”
Intermediaries: “Someone who carries messages between people who are unwilling or unable to meet.”
Libyan Civil War: “The Libyan Civil War refers to the conflict that began in 2011 as part of the broader wave of protests and uprisings known as the Arab Spring. This civil war was fought between forces loyal to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and those seeking to oust him from power, leading to a significant struggle for control over Libya's political future and resources.”
Marginalization: “The act of treating someone or something as if they are not important.”
Mercenaries: “A soldier who fights for any country or group that pays them.”
Militias: “The government called out the militia to help cope with the rioting.”
Opposition: “Disagreement with something, often by speaking or fighting against it.”
Perpetuating: “To cause something to continue.”
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): “A mental condition in which a person suffers severe anxiety and depression after a very frightening or shocking experience, such as an accident or a war.”
Refugees: “A person who has escaped from their own country for political, religious, or economic reasons or because of a war.”
Regime: “A form of government.”
Rehabilitation Programs: “A formal or structured medical or health care activity designed to contribute to its participants' mental, physical, or social development and is certified by a national standard−setting or certifying organization when such an organization exists.”
Reintegrate: “To integrate again into an entity; restore to unity.”
Social Worker: “A person who works for the social services or for a private organization providing help and support for people who need it.”
Susceptible: “Easily influenced or harmed by something.”
Thwarted: “To stop something from happening or someone from doing something.”
Torture: “The act of causing great physical or mental pain in order to persuade someone to do something or to give information, or to be cruel to a person or animal.”
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