The Digital Age and the Escalation of Cyber Gender-Based Violence

Author: Antonia Vasileiadou

April 7, 2025

[Image source: European Institute for Gender Equality

I.                Rising Threats of Gender-Based Violence in Cyberspace

In the modern digital landscape, the pervasive influence of technology has significantly impacted individuals’ lives. The widespread exposure of personal data across various social media platforms has created opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities, jeopardise systems and networks. Beyond the economic and social consequences for governments and businesses, individuals frequently fall victim to cybercrimes, resulting in the violation of their fundamental rights.

Despite the extensive prohibition of human rights violations under various legal frameworks, such violations persist on a global scale. In particular, violations of women’s rights, including gender-based discrimination, sexual violence, and domestic abuse, remain prevalent worldwide. These ongoing issues perpetuate gender inequality and contribute to severe social and humanitarian consequences.

Advanced technology intersects with the violation of women’s rights, manifesting in various forms. Cybercrime encompasses a broad spectrum of criminal activities, including gender-based violence (GBV). Online gender-based violence is defined as: targeted harassment and prejudice through technology against people, disproportionately women, based on their gender. Perpetrators exploit both social media as well as anonymous platforms to harm their victims, while weak legal frameworks and poor enforcement enable impunity for these offenders. International agreements advocate for protections, but challenges remain because of anonymity, jurisdictional limits, and victim-blaming.

II.             Types of Cyber Gender-Based Violence and Associated Statistics

Online GBV manifests in various forms, including unwanted sexual remarks, non-consensual pornography, threats, doxing, cyberstalking, harassment, and gender-based discriminatory content such as memes and social media or blog posts. It can be perpetrated through multiple means, such as impersonation, hacking, spamming, tracking and surveillance, and the malicious distribution of intimate messages and images.[1]

A particularly alarming form of online GBV is digital domestic abuse, a growing extension of traditional domestic violence that extends into online formats. Domestic abuse remains a pervasive issue, impacting millions of individuals worldwide, and it is recognized as a significant public health concern. Disturbingly, it often perpetuates across generations, with children exposed to abuse more likely to experience or perpetuate it in their adult relationships. To put the scale of this issue into perspective, statistics indicate that nearly 325,000 pregnant women experience domestic violence each year. Additionally, data from the United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reveals that intimate partner violence affects over 10 million individuals annually. [2]

Digital domestic abuse is a form of abuse where technology is used to harass, control, or manipulate a partner. It can involve unauthorized access to personal accounts, such as social media or bank accounts, which may allow the abuser to both monitor and actively restrict the victim’s independence. Perpetrators may engage in cyberflashing, i.e., sending unwanted explicit images to an unsuspecting victim, or coercing their victims into sharing intimate content, which can later be used for intimate image abuse or blackmail. Additionally, they may pose as the victim online, spread false information, or use social media to humiliate and degrade them. This type of abuse extends the reach of a perpetrator of traditional domestic abuse by ensuring that victims are never truly free from their abuser’s influence, even in digital spaces.[3]

The key distinction between traditional domestic abuse and digital domestic abuse lies in the medium through which the abusive behaviors are conducted. While traditional domestic abuse typically involves direct, in-person interactions, digital domestic abuse utilizes electronic means, such as smartphones, computers, and the internet, to perpetrate harm.

Technological advancements exacerbate digital domestic abuse by providing abusers with continuous access to their victims, making it harder for victims to find safety. Tools like GPS tracking, spyware, and social media monitoring, which are regularly being enhanced and updated over time, allow abusers to surveil, harass, and control victims remotely and with increasing ease Moreover, the anonymity of online spaces makes it easier for perpetrators to engage in cyberstalking, revenge porn, and other forms of digital abuse with reduced accountability. Victims often struggle to escape, as technology ensures that abuse can follow them wherever they go, blurring the lines between their public and private lives.[4]

Another category of online GBV is cyberstalking, a more specific form of cyberbullying involving persistent and threatening online behaviours. Cyberbullying affects people on a global scale, regardless of groups or regions. In 2023, 1 in 5 internet users felt at risk of online harassment or abuse.[5] Every individual using the internet can face harmful interactions, with children and teenagers being especially vulnerable.

According to the European Union (EU) Fundamental Rights Survey on Violence Against Women (2014), 20% of young women in the EU had experienced some form of cyber sexual harassment.[6] Similarly, the 2020 "Plan International: Free to Be Online?" report found that 58% of girls had encountered online harassment, with 50% reporting that they experience more online harassment than street harassment.[7] Additionally, a 2017 Amnesty International survey revealed that 36% of women in the UK felt that online harassment posed a threat to their physical safety. These findings underscore the growing prevalence and impact of online gender-based violence, highlighting the urgent need for stronger legal protections and digital safety measures. [8]

III.          How Technology Amplifies Online Abuse

Gender-based violence stems from various factors, with misogynistic cultural norms playing a major role in this spread online. Sexist views legitimise violence as a means of maintaining dominance, and people often transfer their existing beliefs into digital space. However, technology itself does not create this violence – it merely provides another platform for individuals to express and act on their attitudes.

In the 2010s, image-based abuse, commonly known as “revenge porn”, began drawing significant attention. By 2017, the EU estimated that 1 in 10 women had already experienced a form of online violence from the age of 15 onward – a figure that only worsened with the outbreak of COVID-19.[9]

Online algorithms and user behavior also contribute to gender-based violence. Social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook, designed to prioritize engagement, can unintentionally amplify abusive content. Negative comments encourage others to participate, especially when harmful behaviour becomes normalized. Additionally, encrypted messaging services provide perpetrators with anonymity, making it more difficult for law enforcement to track and hold them accountable.

Online spaces can foster communities with deeply misogynistic views as well. Anonymous discussion platforms often enable the spread of harmful ideas, reinforcing discrimination and violence against women. The structure of the digital world itself plays a role in this exclusion, as threats, harassment, and lack of safety discourage women from fully participating in online spaces. [10] 

New technologies, particularly ones tied to artificial intelligence (AI), have further complicated cyberviolence. Tools like deepfake pornography allow perpetrators to create fake explicit content, making it extremely difficult for victims to prove its inauthenticity and seek justice. As technology continues to evolve, so do the methods used to perpetrate GBV, highlighting the urgent need for stronger legal protections and digital safety measures. 

IV.          International and European Legal Frameworks on Cyber Gender-Based Violence

International Laws aimed at protecting individuals from cyber gender-based violence are still evolving. However, there are several key frameworks, treaties, and guidelines that address this issue. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is an international treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979 in order to eliminate discrimination against women. CEDAW does not directly address cyber violence, but its provisions on gender equality and the protection of women’s rights can be applied to combat cyber GBV. [11]

[Image source: E-International Relations]

The UN Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), plays a big role in the creation of a legal framework, as it recognizes that human rights, including freedom of expression, privacy, and protection from violence, should be upheld in the online world. The UDHR is not a legally binding treaty, but it calls for the protection of women and other marginalized groups from cyber violence, such as harassment, threats, and online abuse. [12]

In Europe, there are several laws and regulations that protect individuals from cyber gender-based violence by addressing online harassment, abuse, and discrimination. These laws come from the European Union (EU), the Council of Europe, and national governments, aiming to create a safer digital space for all users, particularly women and marginalized groups.

The Istanbul Convention (Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence) is the most comprehensive legal framework addressing gender-based violence, including its online forms. It requires the criminalization of stalking, sexual harassment, and psychological violence, which includes cyberstalking, online threats, and harassment. Additionally, it encourages protection measures for victims and legal actions against perpetrators. Although not all EU countries have ratified the convention, it remains a key reference for gender-based violence laws.[13]

The Digital Services Act (DSA) is another EU regulation adopted in 2022 that enforces stronger regulations on social media platforms and online services to tackle illegal and harmful content, including cyber gender-based violence. The DSA keeps people safe online by setting clear rules for platforms. It protects consumer rights, encourages fair competition, and supports small businesses. For citizens, the DSA means better protection of human rights online, less exposure to harmful or illegal content and more transparency about how platforms moderate content through a public database. [14]

In the same direction, while the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) [15] is primarily a privacy law, it also helps combat online gender-based violence by protecting individuals from doxing (unauthorized sharing of personal data like addresses or phone numbers), allowing victims to demand removal of private or harmful data shared without consent and imposing fines on companies that fail to protect users' personal data from misuse. Through legal frameworks such the above and alongside upcoming directives targeting online gender-based violence, the EU has established a strong foundation for digital safety and human rights’ protection.

V.             Challenges addressing Cyber Gender-Based Violence

Online gender-based violation is not just an issue of digital misbehavior. It represents serious human rights violations that disproportionately impact women and marginalized groups. The right to freedom of expression, privacy, and personal security are fundamental, yet online spaces often become hostile environments where these rights are compromised. When individuals, especially women, are subjected to harassment, threats, and doxing, they may feel forced to withdraw from online discussions, effectively silencing their voices and limiting their participation in the digital world. This not only harms the individuals affected but also weakens democratic values of our society by discouraging diverse perspectives.

Given the scale of online abuse, social media platforms and tech companies have a significant responsibility to ensure user safety. To protect their users, social media platforms remove millions of harmful posts and accounts each year. Between April and June 2024, Facebook took action on 7.8 million posts, while Instagram removed over 10 million for bullying and harassment. On platform X (formerly Twitter), 1 million accounts were suspended, and 2.2 million posts were deleted for abuse and hate speech in early 2024. Snapchat also reported 6.6 million cases of bullying and harassment in the first half of 2023.[16] However, the reactive approach of taking action after violations occur is not enough. Platforms must invest in stronger content moderation systems, AI-driven detection tools, and human oversight to prevent harmful content from spreading.

Ultimately, the protection of human rights in the digital space requires a collaborative effort between governments, civil society, and tech companies. A more responsible and human-centered approach to digital governance is essential to ensure that everyone, regardless of gender, can navigate the internet without fear, intimidation, or harm. Likewise, education and awareness are crucial in fostering a culture of respect and accountability online. Only through stronger regulations, responsible platform policies, and collective efforts can we create a digital space where women and all users feel safe, empowered, and free to express themselves without fear of harassment or violence.

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Glossary

• Blackmail: the act of getting money from people or forcing them to do something by threatening to tell a secret of theirs or to harm them.

• Cyberbullying: repeated behavior with intent to harm, including embarrassing, threatening, mean-spirited or aggressive texts, emails or messages.

• Cybercrime: the use of computers or the internet as an instrument to commit criminal activity.

• Cyberflashing: sending obscene pictures to strangers online.

• Cyberstalking: repeated and unwanted attention that causes fear of someone’s safety.

• Deepfake: a picture, a video or an audio of a person which are edited or generated using AI tools, and which may be used maliciously or spread false information.

• Digital Abuse: monitoring, stalking, harassing, threatening, controlling or impersonating another person using technology.

• Doxing: disclosing someone’s private information or identity – related details online without their permission, usually with harmful intentions.

• Gender-Based Violence: any act of violence that is directed against an individual based on their gender identity or perceived gender.

• Image-Based Abuse: the distribution of intimate images without permission, typically used to shame, manipulate, or exert control.

• Online Harassment: it involves aggressive language, persistent trolling and direct threats intended to intimidate or suppress someone.

• Spyware: malicious software that enters a user’s computer, gathers data from the device and user, and sends it to third parties without their consent.

• Treaty: a formally concluded and ratified agreement between states.

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Footnotes/Sources

[1] Amnesty International, Online Violence, n.d.,  https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/technology/online-violence/ 

[2] Martin R. Huecker - Kevin C. King - Gary A. Jordan - William Smock, Domestic Violence, National Library of Medicine, 2023, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499891/ 

[3] Anna Iovine, What is digital domestic abuse?, Mashable, 2023, https://mashable.com/article/what-is-digital-domestic-abuse 

[4] Lorna Christie – Susie Wright, Technology and domestic abuse, UK Parliament, 2020, https://post.parliament.uk/technology-and-domestic-abuse/ 

[5] Stacy Jo Dixon, Cyberbullying – statistics & facts, statista, 2024 October 24, https://www.statista.com/topics/1809/cyber-bullying/#topicOverview 

[6] Violence against women: an EU-wide survey, European Union (EU) Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2014, https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2014/violence-against-women-eu-wide-survey-main-results-report 

[7] State of the World’s Girls 2020: Free to Be Online?, Plan International, 2020, https://plan-international.org/publications/free-to-be-online/ 

[8] Council of Europe, Cyberviolence against women, n.d., https://www.coe.int/en/web/cyberviolence/cyberviolence-against-women 

[9] UN Regional Information Centre for Western Europe, Cyberviolence Against Women and Girls: The Growing Threat of the Digital Age, 2024, https://unric.org/en/cyberviolence-against-women-and-girls-the-growing-threat-of-the-digital-age/ 

[10] Wikipedia, Online gender-based violence 

[11] Office of the High Commissioner Human Rights United Nations, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women New York, 18 December 1979,  https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-elimination-all-forms-discrimination-against-women 

[12] United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights 

[13] Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence, https://rm.coe.int/168008482e 

[14] European Commission, The Digital Services Act, n.d.,  https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/digital-services-act_en 

[15] GDPR Info, General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), n.d.,  https://gdpr-info.eu/ 

[16] Stacy Jo Dixon, Cyberbullying – statistics & facts, statista, 2024, https://www.statista.com/topics/1809/cyber-bullying/#topicOverview