China’s Human Rights Discourse: Reshaping the International Framework - Part Two

Author: Vivian Sun

February 25, 2025

[Image source: China Focus]

Introduction/Updates

China’s emergence as a global power has been considered a strong development of international relations in the early 21st century. Ever since China became officially involved in the United Nations (UN) in 1971, it has, despite a changing attitude, promoted its own “Human Rights Discourse” as part of its broader diplomatic goals, aligning with its governance model and cultural values.

In part one of this two-part series, we examined the content and promotion of China’s “Human Rights Discourse”, and its attempt to reshape the international human rights framework by increasing its influence in UN affairs.

In part two, we will explore China’s second strategy to promote its “Human Rights Discourse” opposing the “U.S.-dominated” human rights narrative.

Background: The Evolution of China-U.S. Relations Since the 1970s

Since the 1970s, the relationship between China and the U.S. has been characterized  both by cooperation and tension, with human rights issues emerging as a central point of contention in recent years. The warming of bilateral relations can be traced back to the 1971 Ping-Pong Diplomacy, when the Chinese table tennis team visited the United States. Later on, President Nixon’s landmark visit in 1972  laid the foundation for future cooperation between the two nations. However, the 1989 Tiananmen Square Incident represented a significant turning point, when the pro-democracy protesters in Tiananmen Square were violently suppressed, particularly raising concerns regarding human rights. The Chinese government’s crackdown on protesters through police violence led to international condemnations, including the U.S. government which halted the sale of military goods to China and imposed economic sanctions. Organizations like Human Rights Watch continue to highlight China's suppression of those seeking justice for Tiananmen victims. 

Despite growing cooperation, after China’s accession to the World Trade Organization in 2001, human rights issues in China continued to be a focal point of U.S. criticism. The U.S. government consistently criticized China’s treatment of political dissidents and ethnic minorities. Most notably, Trump’s declaration that China’s actions in Xinjiang violated international human rights standards was echoed by  Biden’s administration, which maintained a similar stance and imposed further sanctions on the region. With regard to the controversial situation in Hong Kong, the U.S. passed the Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act of 2019, to criticize Beijing’s policies, especially its suppression of pro-democracy movements in the territory. 

Initial concerns of the U.S. government regarding human rights issues in China

After the 1989 Tiananmen Square Incident, the U.S. government began to closely monitor human rights issues in China. In 1999, President Clinton criticized the Chinese government’s treatment of Falun Gong practitioners (A spiritual practice with meditation and moral teachings), who were subject to widespread arrests and forced re-education. 

Under the leadership of George W. Bush, human rights issues remained a significant aspect of the bilateral relationship. In the early 2000s, the Bush administration expressed growing concerns over China’s increasingly stringent cyber surveillance and restrictions on freedom of expression, emphasizing that such censorship violated fundamental human rights. Furthermore, following widespread protests in Tibet, the Bush administration voiced concerns regarding China’s treatment of ethnic minorities, advocating for peaceful dialogue between the Chinese government and Tibetans, and urging a response to their demands for greater autonomy. 

Similarly, during  Obama’s administration, the U.S. maintained a consistent focus on human rights issues in China. After the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, Chinese artist and activist Ai Weiwei was detained for his outspoken criticism of the local government’s response to the disaster. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated that Ai Weiwei’s detention was “inconsistent with the basic freedoms and human rights of all Chinese citizens.”

Moreover, Obama’s steadfast support for human rights was further demonstrated in its response to the imprisonment of Liu Xiaobo, a Nobel Peace Prize laureate sentenced to eleven years in prison for his advocacy of political reform and democracy. President Obama praised Liu’s courage and unwavering commitment to human rights.

The U.S. government has consistently criticized China’s human rights record, particularly in relation to the treatment of ethnic minorities and pro-democracy activists, as these issues have garnered increasing international attention. In 2015, the U.S. Department of State released its annual Country Report on Human Rights Practices, which highlighted China’s heightened repression of civil rights activists. In 2016, three years after Xi Jinping assumed power, the Congressional-Executive Commission on China issued a report that further criticized Xi’s consolidation of power and his crackdown on human rights lawyers. In recent years, the U.S. Department of State has continued to monitor and document human rights violations in China, with particular focus on the detention of over a million Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang, as part of ongoing concerns over the suppression of ethnic and religious minorities. 

Responses by the Chinese Government and Chinese Scholars to the U.S. Concerns: Shaping a New “Human Rights Discourse”

In  response to criticisms from the U.S. government, Beijing initially questioned the validity of such claims and presented evidence to support China’s achievements in advancing human rights. For example, China often defended its actions, including detention and imprisonment, as necessary measures to combat crime and extremism. However, in recent years, the Chinese government has increasingly shifted its approach, citing examples such as gun violence, racial discrimination, and limitations on freedom of expression in the United States to highlight human rights issues that have received less global attention. For instance, China’s foreign ministry urged the U.S. Department of State to address its own internal problems.

In 2022, Beijing issued a detailed report emphasizing the decline of human rights conditions in the U.S., pointing to how the country has the highest-in-the-world gun violence death rate, with more than 80,000 fatalities. Additionally, the report highlighted the rise in hate crimes, particularly those targeting Asian-Americans, as well as the disproportionate incarceration of African-Americans. This finding is corroborated by Amnesty International’s 2023 report on human rights conditions in the United States. The 2023/2024 report highlighted that Black individuals were disproportionately affected by police violence, underscoring the systemic racial discrimination and excessive use of force within U.S. law enforcement. This situation reveals significant failures in the U.S. government's ability to effectively safeguard the fundamental right to life of its citizens.

Furthermore, China frequently criticized U.S. foreign policies, asserting that American military interventions and economic sanctions have contributed to global human rights crises. This included condemnation of the continued operation of the Guantánamo Bay detention facility, which China described as a symbol of the U.S.’s disregard for human rights protections. These condemnations reflect Beijing’s position that the U.S. is hypocritical in its criticism of human rights in other countries, as it fails to uphold the same standards within its own borders. By doing so, China argues that the U.S. has not set a positive example for the global community, weakening the effectiveness of its human rights rhetoric.

To fully understand China's stance in response to U.S. criticisms of human rights, it is crucial to analyze how Chinese scholars view such critiques as emblematic of Western discourse hegemony and an attempt to impose Western human rights norms on China. In their scholarly discourse, Chinese academics argue that U.S. human rights criticisms have consistently served as a strategic tool to stigmatize and delegitimize nations, such as China, that seek to challenge the prevailing global order.

A prominent method of this stigmatization often involves terms like “abuse,” “violation,” and “concern” in discussions about China's human rights practices, especially regarding Xinjiang and Hong Kong. Chinese scholars assert that such terminology is intentionally deployed to cultivate a negative global perception of China, while simultaneously reinforcing the perceived superiority of Western ideological frameworks. Drawing on Erving Goffman’s concept of “stigmatization (污名化)-  meaning the social process of devaluation) Chinese scholars contend that labeling a country as a “human rights violator” is a deliberate attempt to devalue its international standing and reduce its influence on the global stage.

From China’s perspective, U.S. human rights rhetoric is not primarily driven by a genuine concern for global human rights protections, but rather by political and economic interests. The U.S. government, according to Chinese scholars, strategically intertwines human rights advocacy with its broader geopolitical and trade agendas. For instance, both the Trump and Biden administrations’ criticisms regarding Beijing’s treatment of ethnic minorities—especially the allegations of forced labor—are seen as efforts to curb China’s growing influence in global supply chains. This is notably reflected in U.S. sanctions imposed on Xinjiang Cotton, allegedly tied to forced labor practices, which pressured international brands like H&M and Nike to sever ties with the region. Chinese scholars interpret these actions as part of a broader strategy to hinder China’s economic growth while protecting the economic interests of industries in the U.S., particularly the textile and apparel sectors.

As human rights issues increasingly intersect with geopolitical and economic concerns, China views opposing U.S. human rights criticisms as an essential step in enhancing its national development and securing a more prominent international position. Defending its sovereignty and human rights record against Western human rights hegemony, as embodied by U.S. critiques, is seen not only as a matter of national pride but also as an assertion of a more equitable and just global order. China’s resistance to these criticisms underscores its belief in a world order where countries are treated with equality and respect, free from the imposition of Western norms.

Such a belief in a world order founded on equality and mutual respect propelled China’s “Human Rights Discourse” onto the global stage. This discourse, particularly through China’s strategy of countering U.S. criticisms of its human rights record, reflects China’s broader approach to human rights. In various forums, including meetings of the UN Human Rights Council, China has consistently highlighted the systemic oppression faced by African Americans, Asian Americans, and other minority groups within the United States. Furthermore, China has repeatedly emphasized issues such as police violence and gun violence as manifestations of U.S. violations of basic economic and social rights—issues which, in China’s view, warrant international attention. In parallel, China has regularly invoked the principle of “non-interference in internal affairs” in response to U.S. criticisms of its policies in Xinjiang, underscoring its call for a more comprehensive understanding of human rights that accounts for national sovereignty and cultural diversity.

Conclusion

China’s strategic use of “Human Rights Discourse” reflects a calculated response to both internal and external challenges, particularly in relation to criticisms from the United States regarding its human rights record. By highlighting structural human rights issues within the U.S.—including racial discrimination, gun violence, and the treatment of minority groups—China seeks to expose the contradictions within Western human rights frameworks. In doing so, it argues that such condemnations are driven more by political and economic interests than by genuine humanitarian concerns. Through this counter-narrative, China not only defends its own human rights record but also articulates a vision for a more just and equitable global order. As this discourse evolves, China aims to assert a more prominent role in the international human rights dialogue, positioning itself as a key voice in shaping global norms.

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Glossary

• Accession: Accession refers to the formal process of joining or becoming a member of an organization, agreement, or treaty. It typically involves a country or entity agreeing to abide by the terms and conditions set out by the group or treaty.

• Bilateral Relations between China and the U.S.: Bilateral Relation (“Bilateralism”) is the conduct of political, economic, or cultural relations between two sovereign states. When states recognize one another as sovereign states and agree to diplomatic relations, they create a bilateral relationship. On 1 January 1979, the US formally established diplomatic relations with the PRC, and recognized it as the sole legitimate government of China.

• Contradiction: A contradiction occurs when two or more ideas, statements, or actions are in direct opposition to each other, making them impossible to be true or valid at the same time.

• Delegitimize: To delegitimize means to undermine or reject the legitimacy, authority, or validity of something or someone.

• Devaluation: Devaluation refers to the reduction or loss of value, importance, or worth of something.

• Discourse: Discourse refers to communication or discussion, often about a particular topic or issue. It can include spoken or written communication, and it typically involves a more formal or structured exchange of ideas.

• Disproportionate incarceration: Disproportionate incarceration refers to a situation where certain groups of people, often based on race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, are incarcerated at higher rates compared to others, even when they commit similar crimes. This can reflect biases or systemic inequalities in the criminal justice system, leading to an unfairly high number of individuals from certain communities being imprisoned.

• Economic sanctions: Economic sanctions are penalties or restrictions imposed by one country or a group of countries in another country, organization, or individual. These measures are typically used to influence behavior, such as discouraging certain activities (like human rights abuses or terrorism) or to achieve political or economic goals. 

• Forced re-education: Forced re-education refers to the practice of compelling individuals to undergo ideological or political education, often in an attempt to change their beliefs or behavior, typically by a government or authority.

• Guantánamo Bay Detention: A U.S. military prison in Cuba, established to detain and interrogate suspected terrorists, often criticized for human rights violations, including indefinite detention and use of torture.

• Geopolitical: Geopolitical refers to the influence of geography (such as location, resources, and physical environment) on politics, especially in terms of international relations and power struggles between countries. 

• Hate crime: A hate crime is a criminal act motivated by prejudice or hatred towards a person or group based on their race, religion, ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, or other protected characteristics.

• Hegemony: Hegemony refers to the dominance or leadership of one group, country, or ideology over others. It typically involves influence or control that is exerted socially, culturally, politically, or economically.

• Hong Kong Pro-Democracy Movement: A series of protests and campaigns in Hong Kong advocating for democratic reforms, political freedoms, and human rights, often in opposition to perceived encroachments by the Chinese government on the region’s autonomy.

• Human Rights Issues in Xinjiang: In 2022, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) issued a report confirming the allegation of large-scale human rights violations in Xinjiang, including prosecution and persecution based on religion or belief; and arbitrary detention of Uyghurs and other Muslim groups.

• Hypocritical: Hypocritical refers to the behavior of someone who says one thing but does the opposite, or claims to have certain moral standards or beliefs but acts in a way that contradicts them.

• Narrative: A story or a description of events, real or imagined, presented in a structured way. It can be written, spoken, or visual and often has a beginning, middle, and end. 

• Nobel Peace Prize laureate: A Nobel Peace Prize laureate is an individual or organization that has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for significant contributions to promoting peace, resolving conflicts, or advancing human rights.

• Norm: A norm is a standard or usual way of doing something within a particular group, society, or culture. It refers to the behaviors, practices, or rules that are commonly accepted and expected in a specific context.

• Oppression: Oppression refers to the prolonged and unjust treatment or control of a group or individual by a more powerful authority. It typically involves denying people their rights, freedoms, or opportunities, often based on their race, gender, class, or other characteristics.

• Political autonomy: Political autonomy refers to the ability of a group, region, or entity to govern itself and make decisions independently, without interference from external authorities or governments.

• Political dissidents: Political dissidents are individuals who oppose or criticize the policies or authority of the government or ruling regime.

• Repression of civil rights: Repression of civil rights refers to the act of limiting or suppressing individuals' freedoms and rights, such as freedom of speech, assembly, or the press, typically by government authorities or institutions.

• Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority or power of a state or governing body to govern itself without external interference. It involves the right to make laws, control territory, and manage affairs independently, both domestically and internationally.

• Stigmatize: To stigmatize means to treat someone or something as if they are disreputable or worthy of disgrace.

• Systemic racial discrimination: Systemic racial discrimination refers to the ways in which racial prejudice is embedded in the policies, practices, and procedures of institutions, resulting in unequal treatment and opportunities for people of different racial backgrounds.

• The 1989 Tiananmen Square Incident: A student-led protest in Beijing from April 15 to June 4, 1989. After weeks of failed negotiations between the protesters and the Chinese government, martial law was declared on June 3. The government then sent troops to occupy the square, resulting in what is referred to as the Tiananmen Square massacre. The event is also called the '89 Democracy Movement or the Tiananmen Uprising.

  
  

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